«In the sphere of fashion and taste…
laws were dictated to us by Paris»

The beginning of the 19th century was rich in war as was no other period. The fortunes of the world were being decided on the battlefields. And the aristocracy, exhausted by the hardships of war, was willing to make the most of the rare intervals of peaceful life. Solemn ceremonies in celebration of victories, balls and receptions became an essential part of the life of that period. All of this required a magnificent entourage. The art that was born on the edge of war and peace was called Empire. This style appeared in France and its name reflects the state system of the country headed by the Emperor Napoleon. His ambitions went as far as to change the map of Europe, conquer the world and create a united Europe according to his own peculiar understanding. And nothing else but the art of another empire-the Roman Empire-could serve as the example on which in France the new style with its didactic character of glorification of the emperor could be modeled. The Empire style spread with lightning speed over Europe, which was ready to adopt its main laws. Italy, Austria, and Spain adopted this style, brought to them with the victorious march of Napoleon’s troops. Russia did not remain aloof of the new tendencies in the development of art in Europe, the more so since traditional ties with France had always appealed to Russian taste. Since the times of Peter the Great Russia had been able to quickly absorb European culture, adopting it quite naturally and never failing to impart to it a certain originality of its own. With the Empire style we can see the same situation. Thus, in France this style, developing in accordance with the laws of neoclassicism, began with the French Revolution and ended with the downfall of Napoleon. In Russia, on the contrary, it began almost at the same time as in France but reached its pinnacle with the rise of patriotic spirit stimulated by the war with Napoleon and finally declined at a time of social unrest-the Decembrist revolt of 1825.

The essential difference was in the name of the style: for the first time it was not connected with a particular monarch (as it was usual with «Louis» styles in France), but with the state system. In Russia the accepted term for this style is Alexander’s Empire, though it does not seem to be evidence of a cult of the emperor, which existed in France rather than in Russia.

Similarities and differences in the main features of Empire can well be traced in works of art representing the two cultures. When cannons keep silent and objects talk, history becomes easier to comprehend.

Objects can reflect the life of an epoch as mirrors, but there are some among them that make us look differently at history. For example, two French tapestries from the Hermitage. They depict sculptured busts of the Russian Tsar Alexander I and his wife Elizaveta Alexeevna in gorgeous framing. Alexander’s bust is surrounded by laurels and beneath it is the symbol of the strength of state power-an eagle with arrows, scepter and orb in his talons. The bust of the empress is surrounded by symbols of peace: a floral wreath serves as a frame of it, with white doves sitting in an overturned helmet below. The paradox lies in the fact that, initially, these framings were meant for the busts of the Emperor Napoleon and his wife Marie-Louise. But after Napoleon’s downfall in 1815 it was decided to put the images of the Russian monarchs into the already prepared frames, and they perfectly filled in the places destined for their enemies.

In this way there can sometimes be seen in a different light the history of the period when the two powers headed by the monarchs struggled on battlefields and came into close contact in peaceful life. This leads to the birth of not just similar, but almost identical culture in the two countries, which determined historical development at the beginning of the 19th century. The great Russian writer Leo Tolstoy in his novel War and Peace gives a brilliant illustration of the situation when in the salon of Anna Sherer two Russian aristocrats, Andrei Bolkonsky and Pierre Bezukhov, speaking French and dressed in the French fashion, express their negative attitude towards the Napoleonic wars, being able at the same time to properly appreciate this complex figure and finally realize the greatness of the Russian spirit.

Works of art come to serve in their own way as documents of their time. Ideas that stirred the minds of humankind in the early 19th century are reflected in the objects that surrounded people. Russia offered military resistance to the glorious emperor but adopted the style of life of the world’s capital-Paris. And despite the antagonism between the two states, in the development of the two cultures we can easily trace certain completely identical moments. «The ability of the Russian person, including the artist, to adopt „foreign“ art, try it on, and then follow his own path is a characteristic feature of the accelerated development of art in Russia.»(1)

F. F. Vigel, who wrote a lot about Russian everyday life, justly pointed out that «in the sphere of fashion and taste…laws were dictated to us by Paris.»(2) Consequently, Parisian and St. Petersburg life at that time was very similar:

«…all the range
of useful objects that the curious
Parisian taste invents for one —
For friends of languor, or for fun,
Or for the modishly luxurious —
All this, at eighteen years of age, Adorned the sanctum of our sage.» (3)

Russian houses were virtually full of French objects. In the last years of the 18th century Paul I, who had become fond of French culture during his incognito voyage to Paris in 1782 under the name of Count Severny (Northern), decorated his residence-Mikhailovsky Castle-with various works of French art. Upon his order foreign suppliers were to deliver to Russia large quantities of furniture and bronze articles. In this way works of P. P. Thomire, L. F. Feuchere, A. A. Ravrio and other great artists of the Empire epoch appeared in Russia. And here they became a source of inspiration for Russian masters. Sometimes it is hardly possible to distinguish between Russian and French pieces of furniture. The famous St. Petersburg cabinet-maker Heinrich Gambs created consoles that were an essential part Empire interior decoration. His consoles are worthy rivals to French ones, with their Egyptian-style gemmas on the legs and the magnificent bronzework of the base. These consoles practically copy the works attributed to Thomire. However, the Russian tables have as tops boards made of lapis-lazuli probably made at the Peterhof Lapidary Factory that was flourishing in the early 19th century. The combination of ebony, bronze and lapis-lazuli creates an incomparable picturesque effect.

The connection between Russian and French culture is not limited to borrowings-sometimes works of art were created by both Russian and French masters. For example, Russian suites can be covered with silks of Lyons manufacture. In the Empire period its development was largely determined by Napoleon’s protectionism. He ordered enormous quantities of silk for the decoration of residences that he restored. Both French and Russian masters together took part in creation of such works as the vase «Russia» or the mantel clock in honor of Alexander I. The Russian theme is quite frequent in the works of French artists. Russian aristocrats always tended to place orders for various things from French masters. Thus, Nikolai Demidov, a wealthy Russian industrialist, ordered from Thomire a clock with a composition based on the famous Moscow monument to the 17th-century Russian national heroes Minin and Pozharsky. The model was extremely popular and only Demidov himself ordered eight copies of this group. The figure of Russian patrons of the arts like Demidov was typical for that period. Living in Paris and in Rome he placed many orders with Thomire-one of the leading bronze masters of the Empire period. When working for his Russian customer the French master introduced into his strict compositions, created in accordance with the Empire canons, attractive bright colors meant to please the Russian taste. It was for Demidov that Thomire created certain works decorated with malachite. The main one of them is an almost full-size rotunda representing an ancient temple with a hemisphere. The décor is based on the combination of gilded bronze and perfectly selected green malachite — a stone of rare beauty quarried in the Urals.

Malachite was the best of gifts presented by Alexander I to Napoleon after the conclusion of the Treaty of Tilsit. A vase, two tabletops and columns, made at the Peterhof Lapidary Factory, were given as presents to France. Bases for them were made by Jacob Desmalter, Napoleon’s court furniture maker. This gift of the monarch is still part of the interior of the Trianon Palace(4). Thanks to diplomatic presents Russia acquired the best and unique works of contemporary French art. In Tilsit Napoleon, in his wish to please the Russian emperor, made him a present of pieces of jewelry, armory and porcelain services. Napoleon knew of the high value set on porcelain ware in Russia from his ambassador to Russia, de Caulaincourt(5). The Egyptian service after the drawings of Vivant Denon and Olympian service after the design of A. T. Brogniart became part of the life of the Russian court. It is not surprising that the forms of French articles were repeated, copied and interpreted by local masters. That is why the figures of the vase «The Seasons,» created after the model of S. Pimenov, and the vase from the Beauharnais service (Diehl and Gerard manufacture) are at the same time so similar and yet so original.

The figure of Eugene did not appear on the Russian scene by chance. Napoleon’s stepson became especially significant for us due to Russian-French dynastic marriages. In 1839, Beauharnais’ son Maximilian married Russian Princess Maria Nikolaevna and brought to Russia things from his mother Josephine’s inheritance that used to decorate the palace of Malmaison. Among those things was a gueridon table topped with a Napoleonic eagle, a Sea-Bed console from Josephine’s boudoir created by the masters of the Jacobs house, and a dessert service from the Parisian manufactory of Diehl and Gerard. Dessert sets were especially popular at the beginning of the 19th century. They included ice-cream bowels, sugar bowls, compotiers, biscuit dishes, cups and saucers, and various plates. It was customary to decorate dessert plates with different pictures. Plates from the Beauharnais service are painted with views of different cities, including Paris and St. Petersburg.

The costumes of Eugene Beauharnais came to Russia via the same source. His green silk cloak and overcoat with golden embroidery form the costume of the Vice-King of Italy. The cloak of dark-blue velvet with embroidered bees-symbol of Napoleon’s power-is even more gorgeous since it was part of the costume Beauharnais was wearing at the coronation of his stepfather. At that time magnificent garments of this kind could be worn by men at special ceremonies and dinners.

As we can see, the sources via which French objects came to Russia were very varied. One should not forget that in St. Petersburg, as well as in Moscow, there existed at that time numerous French shops such as the Chalme-Auber trading house, Thomiser’s furniture shop, Lancry’s «shop of bronzes and other foreign articles», and the shop of Guerin. They sold luxury goods, bronze, and beautiful lamps with which Russian aristocrats decorated their houses.

The best French silversmiths such as Cahier, Odiot, and Biennais executed orders for the Russian nobility. Thus, the celebrated master Martin Guillaume Biennais, supplier to the French Emperor, created the Eucharist set of seven pieces with delicately chased compositions which was ordered by Alexander I in commemoration of the victory over Napoleon. It was for Alexander as well that St. Petersburg master A. Hedlund executed a field liturgical set, which accompanied the emperor to Paris. Placed beside the French set, the Russian easily bears comparison with the European master’s work. Biennais took part in the creation of the magnificent Empire service for Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovich. And he was also the artisan of Napoleon’s saber, which was with its owner at the Battle of Marengo. However, Biennais was most famous for his necessaires. Such an inlaid kit with a set of carefully arranged articles inside was preserved among the things belonging to the Russian tsar. Biennais’ works as a cabinet-maker are extremely rare, but the Hermitage collection includes his toilet table with psyche mirror made for the wedding of Grand Duke Nikolai Pavlovich and brought to St. Petersburg by the Minister of Finance Count Guriev, together with a silver toilet set (which has not survived until present day in the Hermitage). Among many others, these objects, arriving in Russia this way or that served as examples imitated by Russian masters.

Since the times of Peter the Great it had become the tradition in Russia to invite foreign masters-including French-to work in the Russian capital. Many of them found in Russia their second home. Among them are such well-known architects as Thomas de Thomon or Montferrand-both French by origin. Furniture makers, porcelain painters and bronzesmiths, such as bronze-master P.-L. Agie, the furniture-maker Bitepage and many others, also came to work in Russia. The famous Swebach, maker of the painted plaque Battle of Marengo produced by the Sevres manufactory, worked since 1815 as an artist at the Imperial Porcelain Factory in St. Petersburg.

French taste was spreading in Europe with the help of the French journals De Dame et de Mode and Collection des meubles et objets de gout, founded in 1797 by Pierre de la Mesanger. Many similar editions existed and this was the reason why ladies in Parisian and St. Petersburg salons look so similar in their dresses in the Greek style. However, a dress bought in Paris was considered to be evidence of utmost elegance and chic-as it is still considered now. The main Parisian fashion shops and boutiques were situated in the Richelieu quarter and in Palais-Royal together with cafes, restaurants and gambling houses. It was here that light-hearted Russian aristocrats left their fortunes.

The main source of inspiration for Russian masters of decorative art was their acquaintance with works of the leading French architects and ornamentalist painters such as Dugourc, Berthault, and first of all, Charles Percier and Pierre-François Fontaine. These two created the grammar of the Empire style by publishing ornamental engravings with designs for decoration of interiors in their edition Recueil de decorations interieures comprenant tout ce qui a rapport, a l’ameublement…. compose par C. Percier et P.-F. Fontaine, execute sur leur dessins. They introduced such attributed as eagles, banners, trophies, and laurel wreaths into the language of the style.

It seems only natural that, true to his grandmother Catherine II’s tradition, Alexander kept up correspondence with these artists. Twelve volumes of the album under the general title: Édifices et monuments de Paris sous le règne de Napoléon Ier. Dédiés à l’Empereur Alexandre par Percier et Fontaine, Architectes de l’Empereur were sent to Russia starting from 1809. While in Paris in April 1814 the Russian emperor met with Fontaine, who accompanied him to the Tuileries and the Louvre. Fontaine was charged with the decoration of the Easter ceremony on Louis XV Square in honor of the emperor, and a year later he was the organizer of the parade of Russian troops in Vertu-an-Champagne. In September of the same year Percier and Fontaine sent to Russia the thirteeth volume of the album devoted to French fountains. Their designs served for Russian artists as an encyclopedia of the Empire style which could be used as a source of inspiration or quite simply as a source from where ideas and patterns could be copied. In addition, Percier and Fontaine created certain designs intended specifically for Russia: a number of objects for Count A. Stroganov and a design of Biennais’ table (a wedding present on the occasion of marriage in the imperial family).

It is well known that despite his preoccupation with military campaigns, Napoleon paid attention to the development of crafts, realizing that it could augment his fame. It was during his rule as emperor that the Louvre collection was significantly increased. The Russian tsar, in turn, was also concerned with questions of art. After visiting Paris in 1807 Alexander invited as a consultant Vivant Denon, director of Napoleon’s museum, who helped him to enrich the Hermitage collection.

Special relations were established between Alexander I and Empress Josephine. For most contemporaries the style of life that the emperor’s wife created around her was a perfect example of good taste. The Russian tsar paid many visits to Josephine at her favorite residence of Malmaison, showing signs of his marked attention. After Josephine’s death Malmaison became forever connected with Russia. In 1815 Alexander I acquired from Josephine’s children for the Hermitage a collection of 38 pictures for 940 thousand francs. This collection included works by Rembrandt, Metsu, Potter, Terborch and other artists, as well as four statues by Canova.

Thus, works of art convincingly demonstrate how strongly connected and intertwined the cultures of Russia and France were at the beginning of the 19th century. Objects of everyday life-cups, plates, tapestries, clocks, girandoles, furniture-can sometimes show us things that escape the keen eye of historians, help to understand what victories and defeats in war meant for the people of that epoch, and make us see how ancient heroes turned into their contemporaries, used by artists to glorify the victors in an allegorical form.

One might be surprised by the marked interest of French artists towards depicting the images of Alexander I, who had defeated the French army. It goes to prove the words of Nikolai Turgenev, who said: «As for our emperor, they [Frenchmen] really adored him». The tsar’s portraits can be found on cups, cameos, and fabrics. The scene of Alexander’s entry of Paris in 1814 was especially popular. All these things demonstrate the attitude of French people towards the Russian army. There exist a whole series of engravings devoted to the stay of Russian soldiers in Paris. Some of them have a humorous character: for example, the painting of an awkward «Cossack» next to an elegant Frenchwoman. Others, such as the engraving of L.-P. Debucourt, Russian Officer Taking Leave of a Parisian Woman, show the touching relations of young people from the two countries right after the war.

In Russia Napoleon was also a popular figure. For example, Pushkin, describing the study of his hero, Eugene Onegin, says: «…the iron figure on the table, the hat, the scowling brow, the chest, where folded arms were tightly pressed»(6). However, unlike France, where full emphasis was given to the monarchs, in Russia the characters frequently depicted on plates, medallions and even tapestry were Russian soldiers who had defeated Napoleon’s victorious army. The Imperial Porcelain Factory created a service devoted to the theme of the Patriotic War of 1812 and there the images of Russian commanders-the heroes of this war-appear on glasses, cups and cameos.

Thus, with the language of art we speak about the interconnection of cultures which, despite all the peripetias of history that were happening similarly all over the world, influencing and penetrating one another. While political and territorial differences were being settled in the course of difficult negotiations and on battlefields, the Empire style conquered the whole of Europe without any wars or bloodshed and became an international phenomenon. However, it was in Russia that Empire was best assimilated and most creatively interpreted.

Tamara Rappe

(1) Калитина Н. Н. О русско-французских художественных связях в первой половине XIX в. // Искусство Франции и русско-французские художественные связи. Тезисы докладов. СПб, 1996. C. 48.
(2) Вигель Ф. Ф. Записки. М., 1892. Ч. 2. С. 40.
(3) Пушкин А. С. Полное собрание сочинений. М., 1948. Т. 6. С. 14.
(4) Chevallier В. Malmaison; chateau et domaine des rigines a 1904. Paris, 1989, р. 106.
(5) Denis Roche/ Le Mobilier francais en Russie, s. d, v. 2.
(6) Пушкин А. С. Указ. соч. С. 147.